Ethnic insurgency and narco-terrorism are the twin biggest challenges before the first civilian government of Myanmar.

There are more than 20 armed ethnic groups in Myanmar waging a protracted struggle to realise their objectives which include independence, regional autonomy and relief. Some of them also want full control over resources and commodities, particularly drugs and gems. The cadre strength of the ethnic groups varies in size ranging from less than 100 to several thousand. The Karens have the largest number of armed cadres among the aggrieved ethnic minorities of Myanmar.
Kachin Independence Army
The Kachin Independence Army (KIA) was formed in 1961 to achieve an independent Kachin homeland. Though its parent body Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO) at times took part in peace talks with the government, the KIA has always insisted on political settlement of the ethnic question.
In a major development on May 31, 2013, the Kachin rebels for the first time met government representatives and higher echelons of the Myanmar armed forces, popularly known as Tatmadaw, in Myitkyina. After intense negotiations, both parties agreed on cessation of hostilities and relocation of troops to check further bloodshed.
The deal was considered an important breakthrough after the collapse of 17 year-old ceasefire in 2011 leading to heavy fighting between the KIA and the Myanmar Army along the border with China. The conflict forced more than 100,000 Kachin villagers to take shelter in neighbouring Yunnan province of China.
Earlier in November 2010, the KIA turned down the government proposal to become part of the frontier force. The KIA also firmly resisted the proposed Chinese-funded Myitsone Dam in Kachin province.
KIO reportedly despatched a letter to Beijing threatening that a civil war would break out if the construction of the power project is undertaken. The previous Thien Sien government finally suspended the mega hydropower project intended to supply electricity to China.
United Wa State Army
The United Wa State Army (UWSA), formed in 1989, is a strong insurgent outfit of the Wa community. It primarily stands for autonomy within a federal framework. According to a 2013 estimate, the UWSA has nearly 30,000 armed cadres who control many areas along the Chinese and Thai borders in northern Myanmar’s Shan state…
The UWSA is also a key drug trafficking agent in Southeast Asia and its major source of funding has been income from narcotics sale. The outfit’s armed cadres are equipped with Chinese-made weapons. This powerful insurgent group having links with China did not participate in both the historic November 2013 Myitkyina meeting and the last ceasefire ceremony in Nay Pyi Taw on October 15, 2015.
Karen National Union
The Karens – one of the largest ethnic groups, revolted against the government immediately after Myanmar had attained independence from Britain in 1948. They created Karen National Union (KNU) and its armed wing Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA) to achieve a sovereign homeland called “Kawthoolei” or at least autonomy within a federal framework.
The KNLA cadre strength is anywhere between 4000 and 6000. It has been engaged in skirmishes with the Army adopting mainly guerrilla methods. As fighting intensified between the two parties, more than 140,000 Karens took refuge in neighbouring Thailand by March 2011.The Sien government inked a tenuous ceasefire deal with the KNU on January 11, 2012 to bring the situation under control. However, most of the Karen refugees are still reluctant to return home.
Democratic Karen Buddhist Army
A breakaway KNU faction, the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA) signed a ceasefire deal and its armed cadres have been absorbed into Myanmar’s frontier force.
The DKBA had repeatedly been used by the Tatmadaw to settle score with the KNU—the oldest Karen rebel group. After the ceasefire talks between the government and the KNU broke down in 1997, the DKBA backed by the Myanmar Army launched major offensive driving KNU activists out of their bases in Karen state. As conflict escalated, nearly 20,000 Karen refugees took shelter in Thailand. In June 2009, the DKBA again attacked the KNU bases along the Thai-Myanmar border at the behest of the Tatmadaw.
God’s Army
The God’s Army is another splinter group of the KNU consisting of battle-hardened veteran fighters, former university students and child soldiers. Like majority of the Karens, the members of this armed group are Christians. Reports say the cadre strength of this outfit is between 100 and 200. They are based in a few camps along the Thailand-Myanmar border.
Rohingya Solidarity Organisation
Myanmar’s migrant Rohingya community settled in Arakan province formed an armed resistance movement called Rohingya Solidarity Organisation.
Yangon denies the Rohingya Muslims citizenship rights and subjects them discriminatory practices and even persecution. This has provided fertile ground for the growth of Islamic militancy among the Rohingyas who fled to the neighbouring countries especially Bangladesh.
Chin National Army
The ethnic Chins, who are predominantly Christians formed Chin National Front (CNF) in March 1988. They decided to join an armed coalition of the ethnic minorities and vowed to fight for greater autonomy. Accordingly, the CNF floated its military wing called Chin National Army (CNA) in November 1988. Its activities are confined to a small territory in Chin state and its primary targets have been Myanmar’s military right from the beginning.
The CNF maintains close ties with the Mizos of North East India who are ethnically related to the Chins. Myanmar’s Chin Division is geographically contiguous to India’s Mizoram and enjoys cross-border trade and cultural ties.
Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army
The Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA), an armed group of the Kokang Chinese minority, is also involved in opium production and sale. Government operation in August 2009 destroyed MNDAA’s weapons and narcotics processing facility in the Kokang region. The ops also displaced thousands of people who took temporary shelter in China.
Tai-land Revolutionary Army
The Tai-land Revolutionary Army was created by Shan nationalist leader Mo Heing in April 1984. The outfit’s preference to local term “Tai” over Anglo-Burmese word “Shan” is an attempt to emphasise the ethnic group’s solidarity with the Thais across the border.
Shan United Army
The Shan United Army (SUA) is basically a private militia of narcotics dealers active in Shan state and infamous Golden Triangle. In the 1980’s, the SUA established its writ over some segments of Shan state’s territory and fought against the Myanmar Army on the strength of the huge profit generated from drug trafficking.
National Socialist Council of Nagalim-Khaplang
The National Socialist Council of Nagalim-Khaplang or NSCN (K) was formed in 1988 by SS Khaplang, a Hemi Naga from Myanmar’s Sagaing Division, with the aim of establishing a “Greater Nagalim”(Nagaland) comprising the Naga-dominated areas of neighbouring states within India and adjoining areas in Myanmar.
The Nagas live on both sides of the international border which was hurriedly drawn by the British during the partition of the Indian sub-continent. The abrupt demarcation of the Indo-Myanmar land boundary had left about 40% of the Naga population in Myanmar, while the age-old trans-border socio-cultural and trade links among various Naga tribes have been continuing even today.
After suffering a series of defections, the NSCN (K)’s clout has been reduced significantly among the Indian Nagas. Currently, its writ runs only in the inhospitable hilly terrain of Myanmar’s Sagaing Division. The NSCN (K) has termed this region as “Eastern Nagaland”.
In 2012, the NSCN (K) inked a five-point ceasefire pact with the Myanmar Army at the regional level. There had been occasional encounters between the two sides or army raid on the NSCN (K)’s base but no such incident is reported after the truce.
Other ethnic insurgent groups
Among all the ethnic minority groups of Myanmar, the Karens have the maximum number of private armies and armed factions. The Karen National Defence Organisation with estimated cadre strength of 2000 is one such insurgent outfit. It is fighting for an autonomous region within federal union. The Eastern Shan State Army is another ethnic militia active in Shan state. It has been directly involved in opium cultivation for a long period.
The ethnic Rohingyas’ armed group National United Front of Arakan with over 200 soldiers operates in western Arakan state. Several other ethnic rebel outfits that are pitted against the Yangon include: Shan State Army-North, Shan State Army-South, Democratic Karenni National People’s Liberation Front, Democratic Benevolent Karen Army, Karen Peace Council, Arakan Liberation Party, Palaung National Liberation Organisation, New Mon State Army, Karenni National Progressive Party, Ta’ang National Liberation Army, Arakan Army and Kayan New Land Party.
Narco-terrorism
Myanmar contributes about 20% of the world’s opium production. The country’s Shan state, especially the areas under the control of the ethnic armed groups produce the lion’s share of opium. Many of the ethnic rebel groups are deeply involved in drug trafficking and transformed into “armed economic enterprises”. A flourishing business of opium and heroin has sustained ethnic insurgency over the years.
Myanmar government started crackdown on drug dealers only after 2000. But the drug cartels managed to survive with the assistance of corrupt government officials and local commanders of the Myanmar Army. It poses a serious challenge to the new civilian government headed by President Htin Kyaw, a long-time associate of Aung San Suu Kyi.